Frances Avery Agnelli nee Howe ?

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The architect is the creator and artistic conceptual building with a dual function as an artist and a civil engineer, is designing the plans and direct the production of architectural works.

As a general rule, to practice architecture, the architect must have graduated from an educational institution architectural, be duly registered with the professional in the country where the project is located and in addition be covered by professional indemnity insurance . It is also registered with the College of Architects. Any architect can be registered in any country as the following example of Tunisia.

The guidelines project architect, project manager called, are defined by an architect's contract which has been previously confirmed with the client, the agreement defines the scope of its mission. These can vary from project design to institutional building, industrial, civil structures at various, such as bridges, monuments as well as the regional planning, park, urban planning and in some cases of works of art.

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Architect: a word, a profession
Origin of the word

The first known mention of the word architect - αρχιτεκτων - appears in the fifth century BC in the book of Herodotus, Histories (3, 60) describing the tunnel of Samos, "the architect in charge of this work was the Megarian Eupalinos son of Naustrophos [1].

The word is composed of αρχι - 'arch' chief - and τεκτων - 'tekton' carpenter.

Herodotus uses the word to the manufacturer of pontoon bridge for crossing the Hellespont in -513 (Histories 4.88): "Darius I was very pleased with this bridge of boats and richly rewarded its architect, Mandroclès of Samos.
For Herodotus, the word architect gave Eupalinos which is one of the "authors of the three greatest works that Greece has" or Mandroclès of Samos was not for him the sense that it has taken today is plus a construction technician or engineer.

It is possible that this word was used because the first temples were built of wood. It's the seventh century BC that made the transition from wooden building temples to the masonry construction [2]. When Pausanias visited Olympia Heraion the second century, he still sees some wooden columns.

The word appears in Homer tekton in Sophocles or where it means a sculptor.

All original architects of the Greek Archaic period have left their mark in history by the technical prowess of their constructions. The role of the architect in a Greek shipyard that was a technical advisor to the persons authorized by the city or officials of the sanctuaries to monitor the implementation of buildings according to specifications and ensure payment for work after receiving by the architect. It is from the fourth century BC they are self-employed with contract defining buildings to construct presented and voted on by the Assemblies of cities. There are also architects for administration officials working city or sanctuary [3].

It is possible that since the archaic times, the word "Architecton" means one who controls the workers.

We find this definition in "Politics" of Plato, where it is in the 259th:

The stranger: It is, moreover, that whoever is master builder (αρχιτεκτων) did not personally act as bricklayer (ergaticos, εργατικ?ς), but is the master control to these workers (ergaton archon: εργατ?ν ?ρχων) ".
Young Socrates: Yes
The stranger: And I think as he brings to the work's contribution to theoretical knowledge, but not that of manual operations.
...
The stranger: ... befits the truth to it, once it was delivered, not to believe in the end, no more stand to leave ... but rather to prescribe to each of the masons task that suits him just until they have completed the job done he has been prescribed to perform [4].

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In the Metaphysics, Aristotle opposed the architectonics manual worker (cheirotechnès, χειροτ?χνης).
We also see Aristotle described the architect of the city of Miletus and Piraeus, Hippodamus of météorologos, insofar as it tries to recreate a city in its plan reflecting the harmony of heaven. Hippodamus is also a political thinker whose book II of 1267b22-30 Aristotle's Politics is a description of his vision of the ideal city in the fifth century BC-C [5].

Differentiation gradually will appear in the user between the Greco-Roman and Architektons méchanikos, architect and engineer.

This architectural feature is not unique to the Greek city. The oldest name of architect who has remained in history is that of Imhotep, the architect of the funerary complex of Saqqarah and adviser of Pharaoh Djoser, around -2630 to -2611 of the Third dynasty of Egypt.
In Babylonia, no name architect is reached. The function was a mason and appears in the Code of Hammurabi [6] § 228-230 edited by Hammurabi, sixth king of the first Amorite dynasty, dating from about -1750.
Vitruvius, De architectura

Architectonics Greek will go directly to the Latin from the fourth century BC where it is found in the texts of Plautus in the third century avantJ.-C. literally and figuratively. Architectonics architector will become in later times, a word which will give architectura by following the same variation as sculptor-sculpture or pictor-pictura.
The form also appears in Plautus architectus. The two forms "architector" and "architectus" are used in the meaning "one who lays the foundations" literally as figuratively.
The form will give an explanation architectus etymology of the word wrong by bringing tectus Tego, tect, Texier, Tectus conjugations of the verb "cover" and giving a sense of person making the cover of a building.

He is an architect and engineer of Augustus, Vitruvius, who will give the first book on architecture De Architectura. This is not the first book of architecture that was written (we know from Vitruvius that some Greek architects have written books on architecture), but the only one to have survived. We can then add the one Frontin Trustee Waters wrote about the aqueducts of Rome: De Aquis urbis Romo.

In the introduction to Chapter I of Book I, Vitruvius defines the architecture for it:

"Architecture is a science that must be accompanied by a vast array of research and knowledge by means of which they judge all the works of other arts which he owns. This science is acquired by practice and by Theory: The Practice is in a continual application to the execution of the designs that we had proposed, following which the appropriate form is given to the matter in all sorts of books are. The theory explains and demonstrates the suitability proportions that must have the things we want to make: that fact that the architects who tried to reach the perfection of their art by the mere exercise of the hand, there are not much advanced, however great that was their work, nor those who believe that mere knowledge of letters and reasoning alone could lead them, for they have never seen a shadow, but those who joined the practice to theory were the only ones who have succeeded in their enterprise, as being equipped with everything necessary to overcome [7].

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Vitruvius wanted to write a complete treatise on architecture seen in the broad field given by Greek architects. In addition to making architecture in its traditional area, he added, addressing urban water, astronomy and gnonomique and siege engines. It is worth remembering that he was a technician attached to Caesar and Octavian was entrusted by ensuring the maintenance of the artillery, it was probably taken as expert in the Water Department Rome according Frontin and he built the Basilica of Fanum Fortunae (Fano) which he describes in Book V.

Understanding of "De Architectura" is not always easy because there are few drawings for explaining the text. Vitruvius has chosen to go to a cultured and non-architects of which the corporation was not seen in Rome.
That may be what explains the choice of Vitruvius and when he refers to the Greek architecture of the Third and third centuries BC, which for him is the culmination of the architecture and discusses a derogatory manner the use of brick and opus caementicium (mortar) that have yet been widely used by Roman architects [8]. To write his book, Vitruvius used the writings of Greek architects who have been lost as Hermogenes Hermodoros, Pytheos of Priene, ... or philosophers like Aristoxenus Taranto on musical harmony.
Roman architects are "architectus", "machinator" (engineer) and "Redemptor" (contractor).

Few Roman architects have left their names. The architects are no longer in the Roman world as "fabricator" (builder, technician) to work for clients, judges or powerful benefactors seeking to allow their names to posterity by the construction of buildings necessary to the approval of the Roman city [9], [10]. We know Apollodorus of Damascus, the architect of Trajan which entrusted the construction of its forum, Robirius that of Domitian who led the work of the Palatine palace.

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But the book of Vitruvius is a key witness of the Greek and Roman architecture.

Despite the troubles caused by the invasions of the early fifth century, we know that will be used until the Carolingian period. We can not say that the architect of the Palace Chapel of Aix-la-Chapelle, Odo of Metz, knew the work of Vitruvius, but it was probably the case of those who supervised the work, as Einhard. Indeed the latter cites Vitruvius in a letter dating from 840. Have been found in manuscripts of Vitruvius libraries abbeys at Reichenau, Murbach, St. Gallen. A manuscript of the ninth century is the Humanist Library Selestat. He has the distinction of containing drawings of capitals, some historians have brought the style capitals made the monumental gate of the Abbey of Lorsch and attributed to Einhard [11]. Carolingian and Romanesque periods remained fifty copies of the book of Vitruvius.
In the tenth century, after the end of the Carolingian Empire attacks against the Vikings in the west and north, south of the Saracens, Hungarians in the East, the resumption of construction around the year one thousand will not forget the contribution of Roman antiquity. Thus the construction of the abbey of Saint-Michel Hildesheim commissioned by Bishop Bernwald and built under the direction of the prior Gonderamnus between 1010 and 1033. Some historians have made the bishop Bernwald the architectus sapiens, designer of the entire building, and the prior Gonderamnus, the architectus cementarius, site manager of the abbey. This proposal was made following the discovery of a copy of De Architectura Carolingian (manuscript Harleianus 2767) at the British Museum in London on the last page signed by Gonderamnus. It is also found in the treasury of the cathedral of Hildesheim Liber mathematical Bernwald the bishop, which is a copy of De institutione Arithmetica of Boethius. Presumably this book was consulted Gonderamnus where would the provision of the longitudinal axis of the church following the series of tetrahedral developed from the triangular numbers.

Vitruvius's work is studied throughout the Middle Ages. He wanted to show that architecture was a true "liberal arts". This he justifies in the following paragraph in the first chapter of Book 1:

In Architecture as in any other science, we notice two things: that which is signified and that which means: the thing signified is the one being treated, and that meaning is the demonstration that this is given by reasoning supported by science. It is therefore necessary that the architect knows the one and the other perfectly. So he must be resourceful and industrious all together, for the spirit without the work, or work without mind, no workman never gives perfect. He must know how to write and draw, to be instructed in geometry, and not be ignorant of optics, he learned arithmetic, and know a lot of history, having studied philosophy, having knowledge of music and a smattering of medicine, jurisprudence and astrology.

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Found in the library of Valenciennes, a short compilation of quotes from the ninth century Book of Vitruvius. Thus we see Vincent of Beauvais quote extensively in his Speculum maius encyclopedia, using essentially the theoretical part on the hydrology of De Architectura, which is used in the Speculum naturale. This census will encyclopedic knowledge is found in several authors throughout the Middle Ages, Isidore of Seville start dealing with architecture in Book 19 of Etymologiae but he also gives a religious connotation to this word:

Architect caementarii sunt in which disponunt fundamentis. Vnde and Apostolus of semetipso: Quasi sapiens, worrying, architectus fundamentum posui. "The architects are the stonemasons who have foundations. Hence the Apostle's words about himself: I have asked foundations as a learned architect" [12].

The modern rediscovery of the manuscript by Poggio and Brocriolini Censio Rustici date of 1416. The first illustrated edition print is made in Venice in 1511 by Fra Giovanni Giocondo. There were at least three previous editions of "De Architectura libri decem" not shown in the fifteenth century. The edition of 1511 contains misinterpretations that seem to show an ignorance of ancient architecture. These defects were corrected in the edition made in Milan in 1521 by Cesare Cesariano.

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Project management and project management in the Middle Ages

Owner

The owner is the person (or entity) for whom a project to be built.
He who defines the "program" of the book outlines the necessary data and requirements for the design and execution of the work.
It must therefore ensure:

* That the design and construction of the works are carried out by personnel with qualifications and experience,

and once agreement on the definition of the project put out to tender is found and its financing is ensured:

* There is a control and monitoring of various processes of production, both during the studies necessary for the design and implementation, as during the manufacturing factory and the work on site (quality and quantity of materials, construction products, manufacturing standards and enforcement,
* The structure is subject to adequate maintenance,
* To implement procedures ensuring the safety of personnel.

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The current definition of the client was also true in the Middle Ages, as in antiquity. The main difference comes from the scientific and technical skills acquired and complexity of projects that modern techniques have developed and have forced the client to be assisted by experts. But this notion of experts is not new. For example, when the factory of the cathedral of Milan is worried about the strength of certain parts of works, she uses master masons German or French. Any time the owner went to get the technical expertise or artistic where he knew she was.

The Middle Ages is a long time. From 476 to 1453, if we take the traditional boundaries, nearly a thousand years, Europe has a period of break disappearance of the Western Roman Empire to a boom scientific, technical and commercial. The disappearance of the structures that ensured the stability of the Roman Empire led to a decrease in the dissemination of technical and scientific knowledge. The wealth that allowed to create trade has drastically decreased. Imperial power is fragmented into multiple estates despite attempts to ensure the continuity of the state by the Merovingian and Carolingian dynasties. It is from the late tenth century century begins to redevelop the organizations that will ensure the progressive enrichment of Europe.

It is on this basis has weakened due to replace the art of building.
As noted by Vitruvius in the first chapter of De Architectura, the art of building requires knowledge of scientific and technological knowledge. In the High Middle Ages, scientific knowledge have concentrated near the centers of religious powers. In the fifth century and sixth century centuries, bishops are often members of the old senatorial families who received a good education. Cathedrals, monasteries will play the role as repositories of ancient knowledge.
As a result, until the tenth century the developer seems to have provided the theoretical role of the architect. The practical part is filled by skilled workers. The architects, who are still only known as master masons, began to be cited in the thirteenth century century. The whole "client - contractor, architect - Workers' it appears in texts until the thirteenth century that" client - workers. " It is noted that the term "architectus" is often given to the contracting authority in the first period.

With construction of the great Gothic cathedrals that starts up the distribution of tasks between client, architect and workers, themselves divided between the various trades and guilds.
The construction of Notre-Dame de Strasbourg clearly shows that skills development and distribution of tasks between the various stakeholders in the project during its implementation.
The cathedrals were to the medieval equivalent of today's major projects. They were challenges that the owners have launched and their architects, masons and laborers were able to overcome. The solutions have helped to advance technical knowledge. However, it was not until the seventeenth century that is beginning to develop a scientific approach to strength of materials and statics with the work of Galileo.

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To sponsor a book, the first difficulty of the undertaking is to provide funding in an era that was unaware of the borrowing and lending at interest, which had no budget and with entries of money is not guaranteed. After grants and donations accumulated from the company, he must try to ensure the permanence of these entries:

* Regular resources obtained from the ecclesiastical revenues. Pope Gelasius I was asked to reserve one-quarter to build churches. But this was never observed,
* Donations of the faithful. To interest the faithful, the Church grants indulgences for those who give money.
* Relics of the church and make Ostensions in which alms were made important.
* Religious brotherhoods that are committed to contribute to the cost of the work.
* Extraordinary sources of revenue with the approval of Pope: a recipe for profits is paid to the vacant factory, the fees paid by new canons, fines, ...

Despite all the efforts of sponsors, these resources were generally irregular and uncertain what caused a slow and uneven progress of projects with multiple changes during construction.
Champion - Architect
Until the twelfth century

Century until the twelfth century architect project manager of a book is rarely cited. This does not mean that no one person in charge of directing the work, but the texts do not give their names except in very rare exceptions, like the church of Saint-Hilaire-le-Grand Poitiers. Only the names of sponsors, bishops, abbots, kings or princes, are cited. For the historian Spiro Kostof, this is due to loss of recognition of its special status. For Raymond Oursel is evidence of "a party deliberate indifference" to his face work [13]. You can also see that the stories about the buildings are written by scholars about the lives of bishops, abbots and princes, more interested in paying tribute to mention those they employed.
It Gauzlin, abbot of Fleury (Saint-Benoit-sur-Loire), who decides to build a stone tower, which now serves as a porch at the abbey, by bringing stones Nivernais.
It Abbot Suger who decided on the reconstruction of the abbey of Saint-Denis, asking to bring maximum light into the choir of the abbey and gives instructions for its construction.
If the sponsors are important in the decision to begin construction of a book, you can not imagine that this was possible without mastering their craft masons. Are emerging importance in a text written around 1200 by the English monk Gervais describing the work of rebuilding the choir of Canterbury Cathedral by William of Sens from 1174. This is the first medieval text describing the work of masons [14]:

"He promised to get stones across the sea. He built equipment to load and unload ships, and to transport the cement and stones. It provides the patterns for cutting the stone to his people who were gathered, and without wasting time, prepared other similar pieces.

It is on sites that masons learn their trade in the boxes and quarrying for stone cutting.

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How works the architect?

The work of the architect is making a building specified in the architect's contract that describes its "mission". This includes all or part of the 3 successive phases:

1. design or sketch phase includes the creation of general building: form, layout, construction principle. It results in drawings, models or computer models.
2. the study phase or (Before project summary, after a detailed pre-project) includes the calculations (foundations, etc..) technical studies (water pipes crossing, provision of lifts, etc..) optimization energy consumption, durability, etc.. These studies are frequently conducted with the assistance of engineers specializing in a specific area, the architect in this case playing the role of "leader." They are translated into technical classifications (referred to as "descriptions") plans and technical drawings are very accurate.
3. the direction of the commission or preparation of record of execution, the architect organize a tender to enable contractors to develop specifications related to the work as provided by the descriptions and drawings. The customer selects companies and directors contracts with each of them. Finally, the lead architect on site and coordinate the involvement of companies fulfilling so that the building constructed to meet the expectations of the customer.

Variant: the architect builder. This makes the design and technical studies as above. By cons it provides more overall responsibility (turnkey contract) to work on the building being the sole interlocutor of the client to whom it guarantees - under his responsibility - the final price, completion time and satisfaction of needs . For his client so it is "general contractor" that is to say design + school + work

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